From Arrian’s History of the Expedition of Alexander the Great, and conquest of Persia, translated from the Original Greek, by Mr. Rooke, and now corrected and enlarged; with several additions, London: J. Davis, 1812; pp. 61-93.
ARRIAN’S HISTORY OF
ALEXANDER continued his journey into Egypt, as he had first proposed, and, on the seventh day after his departure from Gaza, arrived at Pelusium. His navy, which had sailed from Phœnicia, he found there, in the haven. In the mean while Mazaces, the Persian, whom Darius had appointed Governor of Egypt, being assured of the sad defeat of Issus, and of Darius’s flight, as also that Phœnicia and Syria, and a great part of Arabia, had already submitted to the conqueror, as he had no army to defend himself, ordered that Alexander should be friendly received into *the cities of that province. Having therefore placed a garrison in Pelusiam, and ordered his ships to sail up the river Nilus, he set out for Heliopolis, having the river on his right hand, and, receiving as many towns as lay in his way into his protection, he passed through the deserts to Heliopolis, and then, crossing the river, came to Memphis, where he offered sacrifices to the gods, but especially to Apis, and exhibited gymnic and musical sports, at which all the most excellent combatants of Greece were present. From Memphis he sailed down the river to the sea, where he ordered his targeteers and archers, and Agrians, besides his royal cohort of horse, on board his ships; and, when he had passed by the city Canopus, and sailed round the lake Marias, he pitched upon the place where Alexandria now stands; and that situation seeming to him very convenient for a city, he even then presaged that it would become rich and populous. Being therefore fired with the thoughts of this undertaking, he laid the foundations of a city, 62 pointed out the place where the forum should be built, gave orders where the temples should be reared, and how many, as also which should be dedicated to the gods of Greece, and which to the Egyptian Isis; and, lastly, shewed what should be the circuit of the wall; and when he had consulted the gods upon this subject, by sacrifices, the omens promised success.
NOTES
* Curtius tells us, Mazaces there delivered to Alexander eight hundred talents of silver, and all the royal furniture, lib. iv. cap. 7. 4.
THERE is a story told concerning this, which seems not improbable, viz. that when Alexander had a mind to mark out the ground for the walls, and had nothing ready fit for that purpose, one of his workmen advised him to gather in all the meal which his soldiers had in their stores, and strew it upon the ground, where the foundations of the walls should be drawn. His soothsayers, and particularly Aristander the Telmissean, who had already given him many true predictions, viewing this, is said to have prophesied, that it would be blessed with plenty of all things necessary for life, but especially the fruits of the earth. About this time arrived Ægelochus in Egypt, with some ships under his command, who acquainted Alexander that the inhabitants of the island Tenedos had revolted to him from the Persians, with whom they had unwillingly entered into a confederacy; as also, that the inhabitants of Chios had withdrawn themselves into the city for safety, because of the tyranny of those whom Pharnabazus and Autophradates had appointed to govern them; that Pharnabazus himself was seized in that city, and committed into custody, and with him Aristonicus, governor of Methymna, who, coming into the port, with five piratical vessels, and not knowing it was in the citizens’ hands, but imagining that the fleet, set to guard the entrance thereof, belonged to Pharnabazus, the ships were all seized, and the pirates put to death; that he had brought to him the said Aristonicus, with Apollonides the Chian, Phisinus, and Megareus, chief authors and encouragers of the revolt to the Persians, and who, till that time, had usurped an arbitrary sovereignty over the whole island; that Mitylene, which Chares had seized into his hands, was recovered; and that all the rest of the towns of the Island Lesbos had voluntarily surrendered to him; and that Amphoteras, with a fleet of sixty ships, had been sent into the island Coos, at the request of the inhabitants, and that he sailing that way, and understanding that the island was possessed by Amphoterus, had received the captives on board, and conveyed them all thither, except Pharnabazus, who had deceived his keepers, and made his escape out of the city. Alexander ordered those arbitrary governors of cities to be delivered into the hands of the citizens, over whom they had tyrannized, to be used at their discretion; only Apollonides the Chian, and his companions, were conveyed, under a strict guard, to Elephantines, a city of Egypt.
63ABOUT this time, Alexander had an ambition of visiting the temple of Jupiter Hammon, in Lybia, and of consulting his oracle, which was said to foretel events, with an exactness beyond all others, because Perseus and Hercules had, aforetime, consulted that god, the first when he was dispatched by Polydectes against the Gorgons, the latter, when he travelled into Lybia against Antiæus, and into Egypt against Busiris: for as Alexander deduced his pedigree from both of them, he was ambitious of arriving at a pitch of glory equal to either of them; for he boasted of his rise from Hammon, the Lybian Jove, as Perseus and Hercules are said to have boasted of theirs from the Grecian Jove. He therefore undertook this expedition to the oracle, that he might be certified of the success of his future undertakings, or at least that he might boast of being so. He travelled at first, says Aristobulus, along the sea-shore, to Parætonius, through a country altogether waste, but not ill-watered, the space of *one thousand and six hundred stadia, and thence took his course into the midland country, where stands the temple of Hammon, famous for oracles. The road is desert throughout, and, in most parts, not only covered with a deep sand, but destitute of water. But a plentiful shower falling from heaven, as he was travelling, was ascribed to a divine power, as was also this. As often as the south wind blows there, it overwhelms the whole country, with huge quantities of sand, so that all the marks of former paths are covered, and the traveller is as much at a loss whither to direct his course, amidst these sands, as if he were at sea; for no marks or signs of a road then appear, not a mountain, nor a tree, nor so much as a hillock, from whence passengers might discover their right path, as seamen do theirs, from the stars. Alexander’s army wandered out of the way, in those deserts, and even their guides were uncertain how to give directions. Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, reports, that two dragons, at that time, passed along before the army with a great noise, and that Alexander ordered his captains to rely on the prodigy, and follow hem. He also adds, that they conducted them safe to the seat of the oracle, and conveyed them back again. But Aristobulus, and even common fame, relates the matter otherwise, viz. that two ravens flew before the army, and were their guides in that expedition. I am fully persuaded that Alexander was conducted by some divine power, as appears by all the relators; but the diversity of opinions, among authors, has obscured the truth of this story.
NOTES
* Strabo assures us, that from Parætonius to the temple of Hammon, is one thousand and three hundred stadia: — so that from the lake Marias, or the present Alexandria, to the temple of Hammon, by way of Parætonius, is two thousand and nine hundred stadia, or three hundred and sixty-two English miles. Pliny reckons it twelve days journey from Memphis to Hammon’s temple. Diodorus, lib. xvii. p. 526, 527. assures us, that Alexander travelled along the deserts eight days, the first four of which he made use of water, which they carried upon the backs of camels; afterwards, he and his train were refreshed with showers from the clouds. And lastly, they were conducted to the temple by ravens.
64THE whole region round the temple of Hammon is no other than a huge thirsty waste, or wide extended desert; near the middle part, or centre whereof, is a space included in small bounds, for where it is broadest, it scarce exceeds forty furlongs, curiously planted with olive-trees, and palm-trees, and watered with dews, which fall no where else in all that country. A fountain also has its rise here, different in its nature and properties from all the fountains upon earth; for at mid-day it is cool to the taste, but to the touch intensely cold; towards evening it begins to be warm, which warmth increaseth by degrees from thence till midnight; after midnight, it waxes cool by little and little; in the morning it is chilly, at noon, excessive cold; and it receives all these various alterations regularly every day. This country naturally produces a kind of fossile salt, which, being put into little boxes of palm-tree, some of the priests of Hammon carry into Egypt, and bestow on the king, or some great men, as a present. It is dug out of the earth, in large oblong pieces, some above three fingers in length, transparent like crystal. This kind of salt the Egyptians, and other nations, who are curious in their worship, use in their sacrifices, it being much purer than that produced from sea-water. Alexander, being surprised at the nature of the place, consulted the oracle, and having received an acceptable answer, as himself told the story, returned to Egypt the same way he went, as Aristobulus has it; but, according to Ptolemy, a much nearer, leading to Memphis.
WHEN he was arrived at Memphis, he received sundry embassies from Greece, and dismissed none of them without granting their requests. A body of four hundred new-raised mercenary troops was also sent thither from Greece, by Antipater, under the command of Menetas, the son of Hegesander; besides another of five hundred horse from Thrace, under the command of Asclepiodorus, the son of Eunicus. At this place he sacrificed to Jupiter, walked in martial pomp at the head of his army, and exhibited gymnic and musical sports. Afterwards, resolving to settle the affairs of Egypt, he appointed two of their own nation their presidents, viz. Doloaspis and Petisis, between whom he divided the whole country; but Petisis declining his charge, the whole devolved upon Doloaspis. The governments of particular garrisons he bestowed on his friends: that of Memphis, upon Pantaleon, the Pydnæan; Pelusium, upon Polemon, the son of Megacles the Pellæan. The command of the foreign troops he gave to Lycidas the Ætolian; the secretaryship of the same to Eugnostus, the son of Xenophantus, one of his friends; and over these he placed Eschylus, and Ephippus, the Chalcedonian. The government of the hither Lybia he conferred on Apollonius, the 65 son of Carinus. That part of Arabia adjacent to Heroopolis, on Cleomenes the Naucratian, with orders that the chief men of his province should live according to their ancient laws, and enjoy their liberties, and he should only take care to collect the tribute, which Alexander commanded to be paid into his hands. The forces which he left behind him in Egypt were under the command of Peucestas, the son of Mercatatus, and Balacrus, the son of Amyntas. The fleet under Polemon, the son of Theramenes: and, in the room of Balærus, who was one of his body-guards, he nominated Leonnatus, the son of Onasus; for Arrybas was already dead, as was also Antiochus, captain of the archers, who was succeeded by Ombrion the Cretan. Calanus was appointed captain of the companies of foot, which were left in Egypt, instead of Balacrus. Alexander is said to have divided the country into so many governments, because, considering the nature of the inhabitants, and the strength of the fortified towns, he thought it unsafe to commit the government thereof to any single person. And in this particular piece of policy the Romans seem to have copied after him, who would allow no senator but one of the equestrian order, to be sent proconsul into Egypt.
IN the beginning of the spring, Alexander set out on his march for Phœnicia, and having laid bridges over the Nilus, and all its trenches, near Memphis, he came to Tyre, where he met his fleet, and again sacrificed to Hercules, exhibiting the usual sports. At this place arrived a ship from Athens, with Diophantus and Achilles, their ambassadors, and all the inhabitants of that coast, joined in their request. Alexander granted them their desires, and thereupon ordered all the Athenian citizens, who were taken prisoners at the Battle of Granicus to be set at liberty. And hearing that some commotions were risen in Peloponnesus, he dispatched Amphoterus thither, to assist those in that country, who, throughout the whole Persian war, had opposed the Lacedæmonians. Having therefore ordered the Phœnicians and Cyprians to fit out an hundred ships more, besides those designed for Amphoterus and the Peloponnesians, he himself marched into the inland parts, to Thapsacus, and the river Euphrates, having deputed Cæranus the Berrœan to gather the tributes in Phœnicia, and Philoxenus, in Asia, on this side the mountain Taurus; but the money he had in his own custody he committed to the charge of Harpaulus, the son of Machatas, who was newly returned from exile, and now supplied their places. This Harpalus, for his fidelity to Alexander, while Philip yet possessed the throne, was forced to quit Macedonia, as also did Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, and Nearchus the son of Androtinus, and Erigyius, the son of Larichus, and his brother Laomedon, all at the same time, and for the same cause. For Alexander begun to fall under the suspicion of his father Philip, after he had divorced his 66 mother Olympias, and taken Eurydice to wife. But after Philip’s death, when they, who fled for Alexander’s sake, returned, he promoted Ptolemy to be one of his body-guards; to Harpalus, being unable to endure the fatigues of war, he committed the charge of his treasure; Erigyius was made captain of the royal cohort of horse; and his brother Laomedon, because he was skilled in two languages, was appointed to preside over the barbarian captives. Nearchus was constituted governor of Lycia, and all the adjacent countries as far as Mount Taurus. However, a little while before the battle of Issus, Harpalus was deluded by one Tauriscus, a wicked man, and fled away with him. This Tauriscus passing over into Italy to Alexander, King of Epirus, there ended his life. But Harpalus, when he got to Megara, being persuaded by Alexander to return, on a promise that his flight should not be to his prejudice, returned, and was not only received into favour, but again preferred to be keeper of his treasures. Menander, one of his friends, was appointed governor of Lydia; and Clearchus succeeded him in the command of the foreign troops. Instead of Arimmas, Asclepiodorus, the son of Eunicus, was made governor of Syria, because Arimmas, in making preparations for the army, which accompanied him to the eastward, seemed to aim at sovereignty.
IN the month Ecatombaion, Aristophanes being Archon at Athens, Alexander came to the city Thapsacus, where he found a broken bridge, and Mazæus, to whom Darius had committed the care of this pass, with three thousand horse, two thousand whereof were Greek mercenaries, lay ready to dispute his passage; and as one continued bridge did not extend to the further bank, the Macedonians, at first, were afraid lest Mazæus’s soldiers, on the other side, should repair it, and attack them. But Mazæus no sooner received intelligence of Alexander’s approach, than he abandoned the place, and drew off all his forces. After his flight, Alexander, having repaired the bridge, passed over with his whole army. Thence he marched into the country called Mesopotamia, having the river Euphrates, and the mountains of Armenia, on his left hand. From Euphrates he took his way towards Babylon, but not by the direct road, because another was not only more convenient for the drawing up of his army, but afforded greater plenty of forage, and all other necessaries; and besides, the heats were not so excessive in the countries through which he was to pass. Whilst he was upon this expedition, some of Darius’s spies, wandering far from his camp, were taken, who gave him intelligence that Darius had encamped on the banks of the Tigris, and was resolved to obstruct his passage over that river; as also, that he had a more numerous army than that wherewith he fought in Cilicia. Alexander hearing this, immediately directed his face thither; but when 67 he arrived at that place, he neither found Darius himself, nor any garrison left behind him; wherefore he passed the river with difficulty enough, by reason of the rapidity of the stream, though there was no enemy to interrupt him. There he rested a while with his army. At this time happened a great eclipse of the moon; whereupon Alexander offered sacrifices to the moon, the sun, and the earth, by which eclipses are said to be caused; and was assured by Aristander that this eclipse of the moon portended happiness and success to him and his Macedonians; that a battle would be fought in that very month, and that the entrails promised him the victory. Having therefore decamped from thence, he led his forces through Assyria, having on his left hand the Sogdian mountains, and the river Tigris on his right; and on the fourth day after he was informed, by some of his spies, that some troops of the enemy’s horse appeared in the field, but they were not able to discover their number. With a choice army, therefore, he proceeded to give them battle, but was soon met by other spies, who had gone further in their search, and brought him a more certain account, and they assured him that the whole number of the enemy’s horse, then in sight, was not above one thousand.
Alexander hearing this, immediately marched forwards, taking with him his royal cohort, and another, called the Auxiliaries, with the Phœonians, for the forlorn hope, the rest of this army having orders to march a slow pace after. The Persian horse, perceiving their enemies rush in among them, betook themselves to flight, but Alexander pursued them, and those whose horses failed them were slain; the rest escaped, though some, with their horses, were taken prisoners. From those he had intelligence that Darius, at the head of an huge army, was not far off: for the Indians adjacent to Bactria, as also the Bactrians and Sogdians, all under the command of Bessus, governor of Bactria, had come to his aid. The Sacæ also, a colony of the Scythians, inhabiting Asia, had joined him. These were not subject to Bessus, but in confederacy with Darius. The captain of those was Mabaces, and they were all equestrian archers. Barsaentes, governor of the Arachoti, brought thither his Arachotia, and Indian mountaineers. Satibarzanes, governor of the Arii, arrived with his Arians; Phrataphernes, with his Parthians, Hyrcanians, and Topireans, all horse. Atropates led thither the Medes, with whom were joined the Cadusians, Albanians, and Sacessinæ. Orontobates, Ariobarzanes, and Orxines, came with succours from the countries near the Red Sea. The Uxians and Susians were led thither by Oxathres, the son of Abulitus; the Babylonians, by Bupares. The Carians, who had been driven from their country, and the Sitacini, were joined with the Babylonians. Orontes and Mithraustes headed the 68 Armenians, Ariaces the Cappadocians. The Cœlosyrians, and inhabitants between the two rivers, were conducted thither by Mazæus. Darius’s whole army was said to consist of forty thousand horse, a million of foot, two hundred hooked chariots, and about fifteen elephants, which arrived from the parts beyond the river Indus. With these forces, Darius encamped at Gaugamela, upon the banks of the river Bumadus, about six hundred stadia distant from Arbela, in a country every where open and champaign: for whatever inequality was in the surface of the earth thereabouts, and whatever it was deemed could be any impediment to the armed chariots, was all entirely levelled by the Persians, and made commodious for them to wheel round upon: for Darius was persuaded, by some of his followers, that the defeat at Issus was chiefly occasioned by the narrowness of the place of encampment; and this he easily believed.
WHEN all these things were told Alexander, by the Persian spies which he had taken, he tarried four days in the very place where he heard the news, to give his army some refreshment, after the fatigues of a long march. He then surrounded his camp with a ditch and rampart, resolving to leave there all the baggage, as also the soldiers who were unfit for a present engagement, that he, with those who were stout and hearty, might rush upon the enemy, clogged with no other incumbrance than that of their armour. Having therefore drawn out his forces, he begun his march, about the second watch of the night, that he might be ready to attack the Persians by break of day. As soon as Darius was acquainted with Alexander’s approach, he instantly set his army in battle array, and Alexander did the same on his part. Their camps were then about sixty stadia distant from each other, neither were they yet come within sight of each other; for some small hillocks, lying in the middle, hindered them. But when Alexander had advanced with his army almost thirty stadia, he arrived at these hillocks, where, having a full view of the barbarians, he ordered them to halt, and, calling a council, consisting of his friends, and the generals of his forces, the prefects of troops, and the captains of his Grecian and foreign auxiliaries, he consulted with them whether the army should immediately proceed from their present station, and enter upon an engagement (which was the opinion of the greatest part), or whether (as Parmenio better advised) they should, for a while, pitch their tents there, and thoroughly survey all the circumjacent parts, to prevent ambuscades, and see if the enemy’s camp was strengthened by a ditch, or if any galtraps, or other impediments, lay in their way; and, lastly, that they should more curiously and diligently examine the present disposition of the enemy’s army. This advice of Parmenio prevailed, and they encamped there, ready prepared for battle. Then Alexander, taking 69 with him his light horse, and the royal cohort, viewed the whole field where the battle was to be fought, with the utmost accuracy, and, again calling together the captains of his forces, he told them, that they ought not to be stirred up to warlike actions by any speech of his; for their own ancient and experienced valour, and the many gallant atchievements they had so often performed, were a sufficient incitement for them. He only requested, that every one among them, on whom the command of a troop, wing, squadron, or phalanx was conferred, should acquaint his followers what glorious rewards would attend that day’s action; for they did not then fight for small provinces, such as Cœlosyria, nor Phœnicia, nor Egypt, as they had done in former battles, but for the empire of all Asia, and that very conflict would determine whose the dominion should be. He directed them not to endeavour to excite those to valour, by many words, in whom true valour was properly inherent; only he warned them to take the utmost care to keep them in their ranks, in time of action; and, as silence was so necessary, they should strictly observe it: yet, nevertheless, when occasion offered, they might exalt their voices, and that their cries should be as loud and terrible as possible. He ordered them to transmit the instructions they had received to their followers, with all expedition: and, lastly, that they should well weigh the matter, and consider that the whole army may be endangered by any one’s neglect, as, on the other hand, it may be preserved, and become victorious, by each man’s particular courage and magnanimity.
WITH these, and such like short speeches, he animated his captains, and received a confirmation of their courage; so that, relying on their valour, he ordered them to be careful of their troops, and let them take a little rest. Some say that Parmenio came afterwards to his pavilion, and endeavoured to persuade him to attack the Persians by night; for that the shock given in the dark, and falling upon the enemy suddenly and unexpectedly, would be much more terrible and destructive. To which Alexander is said to have returned answer, that a victory gained by stealth argued baseness in the general; but it was the business of Alexander to conquer fairly, and not by fraud. And surely that speech favoured not so much of arrogance in him, as of his constant fortitude in encountering dangers; and I am of opinion that he acted the part of a consummate general in that affair; for many strange and unaccountable accidents happen by night, as well to those who are prepared for battle, as to those who are otherwise, which oftentimes bring ruin to the strongest party, and unexpected victory to the weakest. Besides, the night seemed too dangerous a time for Alexander to hazard his army in; and he was resolved, if Darius received another overthrow, 70 that no night engagement should hinder him from being necessiated to confess that he was a less experienced captain, and had less valiant soldiers than himself could boast of. Add to this, if, contrary to his expectation, the Macedonians should receive a defeat, their enemies had the friendship of all the country round them, whereas they would have their hatred. Their enemies were thoroughly acquainted with the country; they wholly ignorant of it; and, as there was no small number of captives in their camp, they might chance to be invaded, even by them, in the night, not only if they were worsted by their enemies, but even if they obtained the victory with loss and difficulty. For these, and such like weighty determinations, I think Alexander no less to be admired than for the greatness of his courage, which so often crowned him with success.
DARIUS and his forces stood under arms all night, in the manner they had been first drawn up; for as they had not fortified their camp, they were afraid the enemy should attack them by night. And, surely, their long and tedious watching, in heavy armour, and the fear which usually possess men’s minds before a great danger, contributed not a little to their overthrow: and this fear did not spring up on a sudden, but had been of long continuance; it was firmly rooted in the hearts of many of them, and wholly dastardised them. Darius’s army was drawn up in this manner; for the description thereof, says Aristobulus, was found in little books after the battle. On the left wing were the Bactrian horse, and with them the Daæ and Arachoti; behind these the Persian horse and foot, mixed together; next these were the Susians; and behind them the Cadusians: and this was the order of the left wing, quite to the main body of the army. On the right were the Cœlosyrians, and they who inhabit the country between the two rivers; these were joined by the Medes; next these stood the Parthians and Sacæ; after these the Tapurians and Hyrcanians; behind these the Albanians and Sacesinæ; and these also reached to the main body. In the main body, where Darius was, were his kindred, and the Persian Melophori, the Indians, the Carian exiles, and Mardian archers; next these stood the Uxians, the Babylonians, the inhabitants bordering on the Red Sea, and the Sitacini. Before the left wing, facing Alexander’s right, stood about a thousand Scythian and Bactrian horse, and an hundred armed chariots; and round Darius’s royal guard were elephants, and about fifty chariots. Before the right wing stood the Armenian and Cappadocian horse, and about fifty armed chariots. But the Greek mercenary soldiers quite surrounded Darius, and the Persians, who were his guards, and fronted the Macedonian phalanx, as those whose valour alone was equal to theirs.
71Alexander’s army was thus marshalled: on the right wing stood his auxiliary troop of horse; before those the royal cohort, commanded by Clitus, the son of Dropides; next stood those of Glauchias; and then that of Ariston; after which, was that of Sopolis, the son of Hermedorus; next, that of Heraclitus, the son of Antiochus; then that of Demetrius, the son of Althæmenes, followed by that of Meleager; and the last of the royal troops was that commanded by Hegelochus, the son of Hippostratus. But the command of all the auxiliary horse belonged to Philotas, the son of Parmenio. The first ranks of the Macedonian phalanx, which was joined with the horse, consisted of the targeteers, commanded by Nicanor, the son of Parmenio; next to these was the troop of Cænus, the son of Polemocrates; then that of Perdiccas, the son of Orontes; after this stood that of Meleager, the son of Neoptolemus; then that of Polysperchon, the son of Simmias; and next that of Amyntas, the son of Philip. The command of this cohort belonged to Simmias; for Amyntas had been before dispatched into Macedonia, to raise recruits. On the left side of this phalanx was posted the troop of Craterus, the son of Alexander, who also commanded the whole body of auxiliary horse, whose captain was Erigyius, the son of Larichus; next these, still towards the left wing, were the Thessalian horse, commanded by Philip, the son of Menelaus. But the whole body of horse, on the left wing, was under the command of Parmenio, the son of Philotas. Round these the Pharselian horse were posted, who were both the best and most numerous of all the Thessalian cavalry.
AFTER this manner, Alexander ranged his army in front; but he added also another phalanx, which should be a kind of flying party, or squadron, having given orders to the commanders thereof, that if they perceived their own countrymen surrounded by the Persian army, they should suddenly turn backwards, and charge the barbarians, and contract or dilate their phalanx, as occasion offered. On the right wing, next to the royal cohort, was posted a troop of Agrians, under the command of Attalus; behind these, the Macedonian archers, led on by Briso, to whom were joined those troops, named the foreign veterans, commanded by Cleander. Before the Agrians stood the forlorn hope of horse, and the Pœonians, headed by Aretes and Aristo. Before the rest stood the mercenary troops of horse, under the command of Menidas: but before the royal cohort, and auxiliary troops, the remaining part of the Agrians and archers; and the darters, led on by Balacrus, were ranged to front the armed chariots. Moreover, an order was given to Menidas, and the troops under his command, that if the enemy should surround his wing, he should charge them on the flank. And this was the disposition of the right wing. On the left, in a half-moon, were the 72 Thracians, commanded by Sitalces; next the auxiliary horse, led on by Cæranus: after these the Odrysian horse, under the command of Agathon, the son of Tyrimmas. But, to front all, on this wing, stood the foreign mercenary troops of horse, under Andromachus, the son of Hieron; and the Thracian foot were placed as a guard upon the baggage. The whole army of Alexander, thus disposed, consisted of about seven thousand horse, and forty thousand foot.
WHEN both armies were ranged in such order as was judged necessary, and drew near each other, Darius, and those who were about him, viz. the Persian Melophori, the Indians, Albanians, Carian exiles, and Mardian archers, were perceived to place themselves directly opposite to Alexander and his royal cohort. Alexander, therefore, caused his right wing to stretch out in length: then the Persians, in the same manner, extended their left wing. And now the Scythian horse almost touched those who were the Macedonian forlorn hope; nevertheless, Alexander still continued to draw towards the right hand, till he approached near the place which the Persians had levelled. But now Darius, fearing that, if the Macedonians proceeded to move to uneven ground, his armed chariots would be useless, commanded those who were at the extremity of his left wing to wheel round, and thereby hinder Alexander from extending his right wing further. This done, Alexander gave orders to his mercenary horse, led on by Menidas, to attack them. But when the Scythian horse, and those of the Bactrians, who were joined with them, had almost cut off these few, their numbers being much superior, Alexander ordered Aretes, with the Pæonians, and foreigners, to their relief; upon which the barbarians gave way: but another body of Bactrians coming up caused their flying troops to rally, and renewed the fight; and a sharp equestrian conflict ensuing, many of Alexander’s soldiers fell, not only because they were overborn by numbers, but because the Scythian horses and their riders were much more completely armed. But, as it was, the Macedonians sustained the shock, and beginning to push forwards with great fury, broke the enemy’s ranks. The barbarians, on the other hand, sent their armed chariots against the Macedonians, to put them into confusion, but their designs were frustrated; for they no sooner approached, than the Agrians and darters, under Balacrus, who were posted before the auxiliary horse, destroyed many with their missive weapons. The reins of some of them were seized, and their drivers being thrown headlong from their seats, their horses were stopped and slain. Yet some run quite through the middle of the army, and escaped, for they opened their ranks, as they had been ordered, wherever the chariots approached them; by which means it happened, that the chariots drove through safe, and the part of the army through which they were hurried remained firm and untouched. However, most of these 73 were afterwards seized by the captain of horse and targeteers belonging to Alexander.
BUT when Darius’s whole body of foot begun to be in motion, with design to environ Alexander’s right wing, he speedily dispatched Aretas against them, though himself still continued his command there. But when he perceived that the party of horse, sent against those who harrassed his right wing, had begun to break into the barbarian ranks, he immediately hastened thither, and drawing up his party of auxiliary horse into a sort of cuneus, flew directly to the place where the chasm was, with a mighty noise, as though he had been in pursuit of Darius: and, indeed, the battle was doubtful for a little time. But when the auxiliary troops about Alexander, and even he himself, begun to redouble their force, and smite the Persians in the faces with their spears; and when the Macedonian phalanx, still firm and terrible, begun to rush in upon them, then Darius, whose mind had been before possessed with dismal apprehensions of Alexander, gave up all for lost, and fled. The Persians also, who had endeavoured to environ the right wing, were in great streights, being violently assaulted by Aretas; but at length they betook themselves to flight, and the Macedonians made a huge slaughter of them in the pursuit. Simmias, with his troop, could not assist Alexander there, but was forced to make a halt, and fight; for he not only received intelligence that the left wing was in danger, but that the part from whence Alexander had drawn his troops, to pursue the enemy, and left a vacant space, was so much weakened, that some of the Indian and Persian horse had penetrated as far as the Macedonian baggage, and a dreadful conflict happened there; for the Persians rushed boldly forwards against the Macedonians, who were chiefly unarmed, and never suspected that a small party would dare to attack them, and break their double phalanx. The barbarian captives also, seeing the Macedonians in this distress, by the Persians, rose up against them in the heat of the battle. But the captains of those forces, who were placed as a rear-guard to the first phalanx, perceiving this defeat of their countrymen, immediately faced about, (according to their orders) and came upon the backs of the Persians, and, finding them entangled among the baggage, slew many; the rest escaped by flight. But the right wing of the Persian army, who had not yet hear of Darius’s flight, set themselves in opposition to Alexander’s left, and falling obliquely upon Parmenio’s troop, did great execution among them.
74IN the mean time, while the Macedonian affairs hung thus in suspence, Parmenio dispatched a messenger to acquaint Alexander with his danger, and beg his assistance. When Alexander understood this he immediately left off the pursuit, and returning to the army with his auxiliary forces, rushed with great fury upon the right wing of the barbarians: his first attack was made upon the enemy’s light horse, namely, the Parthians, some Indians and Persians, which last were both the stoutest and most numerous; and then happened a far more dreadful scene than any of the former; for the barbarians still keeping their ranks, begun to face about, to meet Alexander; and then there was no casting of darts, nor dexterous management of horses, as is common in equestrian battles, but every one strove to dismount his foe, and, as if their whole safety had depended on their success that way, they proceeded to give wounds, and receive them, to smite, and be smitten, as if each particular person had endeavoured to procure a victory for himself, and not for another. In this conflict, about sixty of Alexander’s auxiliary forces were slain, and Hephæstion, Cænus, and Menidas, wounded. But even here the Macedonians had the advantage; for the barbarians, not able to endure their rage any longer, begun to consult their safety, by a precipitate flight. And now Alexander had almost arrived at the enemy’s right wing, which he also designed to have encountered; but, the Thessalian horse having already attacked them with great valour, little remained to be done; for he no sooner appeared with his forces, than they quitted their stations, and fled. Alexander therefore, returning to his pursuit of Darius, left not off till the night compelled him; and Parmenio, with his troops, also pursued as far as they could. Alexander passing the river Lycus, there encamped, to give the men and their horses a little refreshment. Mean while, Parmenio seized upon the enemy’s tents, and secured all their baggage, elephants, and camels. Alexander, having given his auxiliary troops some rest, arose, about midnight, and hastened to Arbela, hoping there not only to seize upon Darius, but all his treasures, and royal furniture. The next day he arrived there, having already pursued the fugitives about six hundred furlongs. But he could not find Darius there; for he, not daring to trust himself any where, found rest no where: but the royal treasures and furniture fell into his hands, and Darius’s chariot, and shield, and bow, came again into the conqueror’s power. Of the Macedonian horsemen, about one hundred fell in that battle: but a thousand horses were lost, partly by wounds received in fight, and partly being over-heated in the pursuit; near one half of which number belonged to the auxiliary forces. Of the barbarians, no less then three hundred thousand are said to have been slain; and that the number of prisoners was much greater. All the elephants, and all the chariots, which were not broke in the fight, were now taken. This battle was thus won in the 75 month of Puanepsion, when Aristophanes was Archon at Athens; and hereby the prediction of Aristander was accomplished, viz. that, before the month was fully past, in which the eclipse of the moon happened, Alexander should both fight a battle, and obtain a victory.
DARIUS, immediately after this battle, fled through the mountainous tract of Armenia, into Media, and with him were the Bactrians, and some Persians of his kindred, besides of few of the Melophori. About two thousand foreign mercenaries also accompanied him, commanded by Paron, the Phocæan, and Glaucus, the Ætolian. He took his flight thus precipitately into Media, because he imagined Alexander would, immediately after this battle, hasten to Susa and Babylon; for all that country is not only extremely populous, but commodious for marching an army through; and, besides, Babylon and Susa seemed to be destined as the rewards of that day’s action; whereas the ways into Media were by no means commodious for the march of a great army; and in that Darius’s judgment was just; for when Alexander left Arbela, he hastened straight to Babylon; and when he came near the city, he drew up his whole army in order of battle. But the Babylonians, having notice of his approach, threw open their gates, and, in vast multitudes, with their priests and chief men, went out to meet him, offering him great gifts, besides delivering the city, the tower, and the royal treasure, into his hands. Alexander, entering the city, commanded the Babylonians to rebuild the temples there which Xerxes had destroyed, and especially the temple of Belus, whom the Babylonians worshipped, as their chief god. He constituted Mazæus governor of the city, Apollodorus, of Amphipolis, captain of those troops left with Mazæus, and Asclepiodorus, the son of Philo, gatherer of the tribute. He also sent Methrines (who had delivered the castle of Sardis into his possession) to the governor of Armenia. He consulted the Chaldæans in this city, about the restoration of the temples, and whatever they advised he performed, and, in particular, by their advice he offered sacrifices to Belus. Taking his leave of Babylon, he marched for Susa, and was met on his way by the governors son, and a messenger, with a letter from Philoxenus, whom he had dispatched directly thither, from the field of battle. The substance of the letter was, that the Susians had delivered their city into his possession, and all the royal treasure was safe. On the twentieth day after his departure from Babylon, he arrived at Susa, and, entering the city, took possession of all the money, amounting to fifty thousand talents, besides the royal furniture. Many other things were found there, which Xerxes had formerly carried out of Greece, particularly the brazen statues of Harmodius and Aristogiton. 76 These he sent back to Athens, and they are to be seen at this day, placed in the Ceramicus, near the ascent into the city, from the district called Metroos, hard by the altar of Eudanemus, which, whoever has been initiated in the Eleusinian rites, knows to stand in the Portico. Here Alexander sacrificed with lighted torches, after the custom of his country, and exhibited gymnic and musical sports; and then, leaving Abulites, a Persian, governor of the country round Susa, Mazarus, one of his friends, commander of the castle, and Archelaus, the son of Theodorus, captain of the forces, he directed his march against the Persians. He also sent Menetes into the maritime parts, having made him governor of Syria, Phœnicia, and Cilicia, to whom he delivered three thousand talents of silver, with orders, that as much thereof as was necessary should be conveyed by sea to Antipater, to carry on the war against the Lacedæmonians. Thither arrived Amyntus, the son of Andromenes, with an army of new-raised men, from Macedonia, the horse belonging to which he incorporated with his auxiliary troops, but the foot were distributed each into the troop belonging to his own nation. He also appointed two decurios to every troop, whereas, before this time, there were no decurios in the horse service; and those he chose out of the number of his auxiliaries, who had already served him with the greatest courage and fidelity.
AFTER this, moving with his army from Susa, he passed the river Pasitigris, and entered the territories of the Uxii. Those Uxii who inhabited the open country, and had, before, been subject to the Persians, promised him obedience; but the mountaineers, who never stooped to the Persian yoke, sent him word, that they would not suffer him to march with his army against the Persians, unless he would allow them as much for his passage as the Persian monarchs were wont to allow. Alexander sent back the messengers, with orders, that they should block up those streights, whereby they designed to put a stop to his intended march, and there receive their usual tribute. He, in the mean time, accompanied with his royal cohort, his targeteers, and about eight thousand others, by the direction of some Susian guides, entered their country by night, another way, much less frequented, but more difficult, and, the next day, came into some of the Uxian villages, where he took much spoil, and slew many of the inhabitants, whom they surprised asleep; others fled to the mountains. Alexander hereupon marched speedily to these streights, to which he observed the Uxians flocking in great numbers, in hopes of the accustomed tribute for the passage of an army; but he had dispatched Craterus before, to seize the tops of the mountains, whither, he imagined, the enemy would retire, if reduced to extremities. He, hastening his march, seized upon the pass, and, having drawn up his forces in order of battle, attacked the barbarians from 77 the highest and most advantageous station. They, being in a consternation at the suddenness of his arrival, and seeing those places seized wherein they chiefly trusted, without striking a blow, betook themselves to flight. However, many of them fell by Alexander’s soldiers, in the pursuit, and many tumbled down from the rocks and precipices, while others, endeavouring to escape over the tops of the mountains, were seized, and slain by Craterus’s forces. Being thus rewarded for their securing the passage through the streights, they, after much intercession, at last obtained a grant from Alexander, to remain quietly in possession of their ancient territories, upon their agreeing to pay an annual tribute. Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, tells us, that Darius’s mother was their mediator to Alexander, who, upon her account, restored them to their possessions. The tribute imposed upon them was, an hundred horses for war, five hundred baggage-horses, and thirty thousand head of cattle; for the Uxii had no money among them, nor were their lands fit for tillage, but most of them employed themselves in breeding and feeding cattle.
Alexander then dispatched Parmenio with the carriages and baggage, as also the Thessalian horse, the royal cohort, the foreign mercenaries, and the rest of the heavy-armed soldiers; against the Persians, and ordered him to chuse a road fit for chariots; while he, with the Macedonian foot, the auxiliary horse, and the forlorn hope, as also the Agrians and archers, marched a nearer way through the mountains. When he came to the Persian streights, he found that Ariobarzanes, with an army of forty thousand foot, and about seven thousand horse, had blocked up the entrance with a wall, which he had fortified with towers, to secure the passage. The first day Alexander encamped his army there; the next, with a choice party, he determined to storm the wall; but, as the storming thereof seemed a work of great difficulty, by reason of the advantageous situation of the enemy, and that many of his soldiers were already wounded, some by stones rolled down the precipices, others by darts from the engines, he caused a retreat to be sounded, and withdrew his forces: for some of his captives had promised to conduct him to the further side of these streights another way; but, when he heard that that pass was also dangerous and narrow, he left Craterus and his camp there, and, with him, his own troop, Meleager’s forces, some of the archers, and about five hundred horse, with orders, than when he perceived he had passed the streights and drew near the Persian camp, (which he might easily do, by the sound of the trumpets) he should assault the wall. Alexander, with his targeteers, and Perdiccas’s troops, his light-armed archers, and Agrians, the royal cohort, and one hundred choice horse besides, having passed a hundred furlongs by night, arrived at these streights, by an intricate road, according to the direction of
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his guides, but ordered Amyntas, Philotas, and Cænus, to lead the rest of the forces through the plain country. He laid a bridge over the river which was to be passed, before he entered into Persia, and, in spite of the difficulty of the road, performed it with incredible haste. Arriving, therefore, at the first station of the barbarians, before day-light, he slew their watch. Afterwards, reaching the second, and having slain most of theirs, when he came at the third, the greatest part of them fled: but even those carried no intelligence to the camp of Ariobarzanes, but, being struck with a sudden consternation, every one escaped, by the nearest way he could, to the mountains; so that, when day-light appeared, the enemy’s camp received an unexpected assault. As soon as they came to the intrenchment which surrounded the camp, Craterus, hearing the sound of their trumpets, attacked the wall on the other side. The enemy then, in great amazement, endeavoured to secure themselves by flight, without so much as striking a blow; but, finding themselves inclosed on all hands, Alexander pushing them forwards, and Craterus meeting them, many of them were constrained to direct their flight to the wall; but that was already seized by the Macedonians; for Alexander, imagining what afterwards happened, had ordered Ptolemy there, with three thousand foot. The greatest part of the barbarians were slain; even many of them, endeavouring to escape by the mountains, were struck with sudden terrors, and fell down the rocks. However, Ariobarzanes, accompanied with a few horse, fled to the mountains. Alexander then returning in haste to the river which he had passed before, and, making the bridge of sufficient strength, brought over his whole army. Thence, by long marches, he hastened against the Persians, that he might surprise the royal treasures, wherever he came, before any notice could be carried of his arrival. At Pasargadæ he seized upon the money which had belonged to Cyrus, and made Phrasaortes, the son of Rheomithras, governor of Persia. The royal palace of the Persian monarchs he burnt, much against the will of Parmenio, who intreated him to leave it untouched, not only because it was improper to destroy what he had gained by his valour, but that he would thereby disoblige the Asiatics, and render then less benevolent to him; for they would then suppose that he would not keep Asia in his possession, but abandon it as soon as it was conquered and laid waste. To which Alexander made answer, that he was resolved to revenge the ancient injuries his country had received by the Persians, who, when they arrived with their army in Greece, subverted Athens, burnt their temples, and committed many other barbarous devastations there. But this, in my opinion, seems to have been no prudent or politic action in Alexander, and was no revenge upon the Persians at all.[79]
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Alexander then directed his march into Media; for he had received information that Darius was there. Now Darius had determined with himself, if Alexander rested at Babylon or Susa, to remain in Media till he heard whether the Macedonian soldiers attempted any innovations; but, if he led his army forwards against him, then he would retire into Parthia and Hyrcania, or even into Bactria; and, having laid all the country behind him waste, render it impossible for Alexander to follow him. He therefore dispatched the women, and all the royal furniture which he then had, and the carriages, before him, to the Caspian streights; but he, with the few forces which he had newly levied, lay yet at Ecbatana. Alexander hearing this, hastened into Media, and entering the country of the Paritacæ, subdued it, and appointed Oxathres, the son of Abulitas, governor thereof, who had before been president of Susa. And when he received notice that Darius was resolved to meet him, and try the fortune of another battle (for the Scythians and Cadusians had come in to his assistance) having ordered his carriages and royal furniture to follow him, under a guard, he, with all his forces, marched forward, in order of battle, and, on the twelfth day, pitched his tents in Media, where he soon understood that Darius was in no condition to meet him, with the forces he then had, as also, that neither the Cadusians nor Scythians had joined him, and that he reposed all his safety in a speedy flight; for which reason he was resolved to be the more hasty in his pursuit: and when he came within three days journey of Ecbatana, he was bet by Bisthanes, the son of Ochus, who reigned in Persia before Darius. He acquainted Alexander that it was now the fifth day since Darius had fled from thence, having carried out of Media seven thousand talents of silver, and having with him an army of three thousand horse, and six thousand foot. When Alexander arrived at Ecbatana, he dispatched the Thessalian and auxiliary troops of horse towards the sea-coast, and, besides their whole wages, bestowed a gift of two thousand talents upon the soldiers, and, at the same time, published an order, that if any of them were wiling to serve him longer for wages, his name should be registered. Many of them, therefore, gave in their names. He then ordered Epocillus, the son of Polyides, with a guard of horse, to convey those to the sea-side who chose rather to return home than follow his fortunes: for the Thessalians sold their horses there. He also sent Menetes with them, to take care that, as soon as they came to the coast, ships should be in readiness to transport them to Eubœa. He afterwards ordered Parmenio to lodge all the money brought out of Persia in the castle of Ecbatana, and deliver the charge thereof to Harpalus, whom he appointed to preside over his treasures there, and with whom he left a guard of six thousand Macedonians, and some of his auxiliary horse. He then dispatched him (Parmenio) with the foreigners and Thracians, and the rest of the horse, except the royal cohort, along the confines of the Cadusians, into Hyrcania. 82 He also wrote to Clitus, captain of the royal cohort, that when he came from Susa to Ecbatana (for he was left there for the recovery of his health) he should take those Macedonians, whom he had appointed to guard the treasures, and march with them against the Parthians, whither also he would soon follow him.
THEN, taking with him his auxiliary horse, and the forlorn hope, with the mercenary troops commanded by Erigyius, and the Macedonian phalanx (except those who were appointed to guard the treasures), as also the archers and Agrians, he marched in pursuit of Darius; and notwithstanding many of his soldiers fainted on the road, and many of his horses died, through excessive weariness, he still resolved to continue the same expedition; and accordingly, on the eleventh day, he arrived at Rhagas. This city is one day’s journey distant from the Caspian streights, according to Alexander’s manner of marching an army. But Darius had already passed through these streights, whereupon many of his followers returned to their habitations, and not a few surrendered themselves to Alexander. He then laying aside all hopes of ever being able to overtake Darius by the utmost expedition he could make, rested there five days; and having refreshed his army, after the fatigues of travel, he appointed Oxydates, a Persian, who had been taken prisoner by Darius, and confined at Susa, governor of Media; for this confinement of his, by Darius, gained him credit with Alexander. He then marched with his army against the Parthians, and encamped the first day near the Caspian streights, which he entered the day after, and came into a fruitful country; and as he was resolved there to lay in a stock of forage for his army, because he had heard that the inner parts of the country lay uncultivated and waste, he dispatched Cænus with his horse, and some part of his foot, to gather in stores for that purpose.
ABOUT this time Bagistanes, the Babylonian, a noted man, and with him Antibelus, the son of Mazæus, came to Alexander, from Darius’s army, and acquainted him, that Nabarzanes, a captain of a thousand horse, and one of those who had accompanied him in his flight, with Bessus, governor of Bactria, and Brazas, prefect of the Arachoti, and Drangæ, had seized Darius, and held him in custody. Alexander hearing this, imagined there was now more need of expedition than ever; wherefore, taking with him only his auxiliary forces, his light horse, and this stoutest and best marching troops of foot, without waiting for the return of Cænus, and those whom he had sent a-foraging, and having 83 given the command of those whom he left behind to Craterus, he ordered them to march moderately. Those who accompanied him carried no more than their arms, and two days provisions. Then all that night they continued their march, and till noon the next day, when allowing his soldiers a little rest, he again marched all the next night, and early in the morning entered the camp, from whence Bagistanes came, but found not the enemy. There he was assured that Darius was carried prisoner in his chariot; that Bessus had usurped the Imperial title, and was named general by the Bactrian horse, and all the other barbarians, except Artabazus, and his sons, and the Greek mercenaries, who continued still faithful to Darius, and could not hinder what had happened; but that they had left the great road, and retired to the mountains, refusing to hold correspondence with Bessus. He also received advice, that those who had the king in custody had determined, if Alexander continued the pursuit, to deliver him up, and consult their own safety; but if he left it off, they would raise as great an army as they could, and share the empire among them; that Bessus was declared general of the army at present, as well because of the great necessity there was for him about Darius’s person, as because he was taken prisoner in his province. Alexander hearing this, resolved to continue his march with all possible speed; and though his men, as well as their horses, were harrassed, with incessant labour, he nevertheless proceeded, and travelling hard all that night, and till noon the next day, arrived at a certain village, where they who led Darius about had pitched their tents the day before; and being there further assured, that they designed to march by night, he inquired of the inhabitants if they knew any nigher road than that by which they fled, that he might the sooner overtake them; they told him, they did: but that it lay through a country desert and destitute of water. He, notwithstanding, ordered them to be his guides; and, when he understood that the foot could not possibly keep pace with the horse in so hasty a march, he commanded about five hundred horsemen to alight, and the captains of foot, and others of their best men, such as were heavy armed, to mount their horses. He also ordered Nicanor, captain of his targeteers, and Attalus, commander of the Agrians, to march, with those who were light-armed, along the great road, which Bessus and his companions had taken. The rest of the foot were left to follow in order. He set forwards at the close of the evening, and proceeded with the utmost vigour; and, having marched four hundred furlongs that night, early the next morning came up with the barbarians, who were flying all in disorder and unarmed. A few of them drew up in ranks, as if they had designed to defend themselves; but the greatest part, at the first sight of Alexander, turned their backs without striking one blow: and even when a few of those, who betook themselves to their arms, were cut off, the rest fled. Bessus and his companions still carried Darius about in a chariot, but perceiving Alexander at hand, Satibarzanes, and Barsaentes, after having given him several grievous wounds there, left him; 84 and with a party of six hundred horse, hastened away; soon after which, Darius, before Alexander had yet seen him, died of his wounds.
Alexander sent the body of Darius into Persia, to be interred in the royal mausoleum, among the ancient Persian kings, his predecessors. After which, he constituted Ammynapes, the Parthian, who, with Mazaces, had yielded Egypt into his hands, governor of Parthia and Hyrcania; and Tlepolemus, the son of Pythophanes, one of his friends, was ordered to assist him in the affairs of his government. Thus died Darius, in the month of Ecatombaion, when Aristophon was Archon of Athens; a prince unexpert and imprudent in warlike affairs, but as to other matters, one who never attempted any invasion upon the rights of his subjects; neither, indeed, could he; for as soon as he ascended the throne, his dominions were attacked by the joint forces of the Greeks and Macedonians; for which reason it would not have been safe for him to have injured his own people, when he had so much need of their assistance. As long as he lived, one calamity immediately seized him after another; neither enjoyed he the least moment’s ease from the time he ascended the throne. For his reign was ushered in with that dismal equestrian defeat at the river Granicus; soon after which ensued the loss of Ionia and Æolia; both Phrygias, Lydia, and all Caria, except Halicarnassus; and in a little time, that of Halicarnassus also, with all the sea-coast, as far as Cilicia. Then followed the sad overthrow at Issus, where his mother, wife, and children, were taken captives; soon after which Phœnicia and Egypt were wrested out of his hands. Then succeeded the last, and fatal battle of Arbela, where he was one of the first who fled, and where he lost a vast army, made up of all the nations under his power; soon after which, he was forced to abandon his own kingdom, and wandered in exile, where, being seized by those about him, he was, at the same time, a king and a captive among his own people; when, after much ignominious usage, received from those who hurried him from place to place, he was, at last, barbarously betrayed, and murdered, by those in whom he most confided. These disasters pursued Darius to the last moment of his life; but after his death, he was honoured with a royal interment; his children received a princely allowance and education from Alexander, as if their father had still reigned; and Alexander himself took his daughter to wife. Darius was about fifty years of age when he died.
85Alexander, having gathered up those whom he was forced to leave behind, marched into Hyrcania, which is situate on the left hand of the way which leads to Bactria; which road is bounded on one side by a chain of mountains, high and inaccessible; but on the other is a spacious plain, extending itself even to the great sea; and this way he led his army, the rather, because he was informed, that the foreign mercenary troops, which served Darius, had retreated into the Mardian mountains; wherefore he was resolved to bring the Mardi under subjection. Having therefore divided his forces into three parts, he himself took the shortest and most difficult roads, because he led the best and stoutest part of the army. Craterus, with his own and Amyntas’s troops, and with the archers and some horse, he dispatched against the Tapuri; but Erygius was ordered to lead the foreign troops, and the remainder of the horse, by a smoother and easier road, though somewhat longer; and to his care was committed the chariots, and baggage-waggons, and the rest of the multitude. Having, therefore, passed over the first mountains, and placed guards there, he, with his targeteers, and some of the swiftest of the Macedonian phalanx, besides a few archers, entered a road extremely rugged and difficult, and having placed guards wherever he apprehended danger, lest the barbarian mountaineers should fall upon those who were to follow, and cut them off, he, with his archers, having passed the streights, encamped in a champaign country, near a small river. Hither Nabarzanes, a captain of a thousand horse, under Darius and Phrataphernes, governor of Hyrcania and Parthia, and others of the Persian nobility, of great esteem with Darius, came, and surrendered themselves to Alexander. Wherefore, tarrying there four days, part of his forces, which he had left by the way, came up with him, and another part passed by him safe; but a party of barbarian mountaineers attacked the Agrians, who were left to conduct a troop of new-raised men; yet being repulsed by their darts, the soon departed. Alexander moving from thence, marched into Hyrcania, towards the city Zadracarta; and at this time came Craterus, with the troops under his command, who had not found the foreign mercenary troops of Darius, which they sought; but they had brought all the country, through which they passed, under subjection, part thereof by force, and part by a voluntary surrender of the inhabitants. Erygius also, with the chariots, and baggage, arrived there; and not long after, Artabazus and three of his sons, Cophen, Ariobarzanes, and Arsames, came to Alexander, attended by ambassadors from the foreign mercenaries which served Darius, as also Autophradates, governor of Tapuri. Autophradates he restored to his government, and Artabazus and his sons he held in high esteem, as well because they were some of the chief Persian nobility, as for their great fidelity to Darius: but when the ambassadors from the Grecian mercenary troops required, that he would receive all foreigners 86 into friendship, he returned answer, that he would enter into no articles with them, because their offence was heinous, in taking up arms for the barbarians against their own country, in direct opposition to the general decree of Greece. However, he commanded that they should all either come and surrender themselves, that he might dispose of them according to his pleasure, or shift for themselves as well as they could afterwards. They hereupon agreed not only to commit themselves, but others, into his power, if he would condescend to send them a captain, to conduct them safe to him. Their whole number was said to be one thousand five hundred. Alexander hereupon dispatched Andronicus, the son of Aggerus, and Artabazus, thither for that purpose.
HE then directed his march against the Mardi, taking with him his targeteers, archers, and Agrians, with Cænus’s and Amyntas’s troops, and half of the auxiliary horse and darters; for he had constituted a troop of darters, who should fight on horseback; and he soon over-run a great part of the country of the Mardi, many of the inhabitants flying; some, indeed, betook themselves to arms, and were slain, and many were taken prisoners. None, before Alexander, had ever attempted to enter that country in a hostile manner, partly because of the steep and rugged hills, which must be passed over, and partly because of the poverty of the inhabitants, which poverty makes them warlike, at the same time when they are not worth the conquering; for which reason they, never suspecting Alexander would have attacked them (because they had heard that he was already marched beyond them), were over-run on a sudden. However, many of them fled to the mountains, which are there steep and craggy, imagining that he would never attempt to disturb them there. But when they found their mistake, they sent messengers to him, and surrendered themselves and country into his hands. Having then dismissed them, he appointed Autophradates governor of the Tapuri, to preside over them, and, returning into the camp from whence he set forth on his expedition against the Mardi, he found the Greek mercenaries, who were come to him, as also the Lacedæmonian ambassadors, who had been dispatched to Darius: these were, Callistratidus, Pausippus, Monimus, Anomantus, and Dropides, the ambassador of the Athenians; all which, having ordered to be seized, he committed them to custody. The Sinopean ambassadors he set free, because the Sinopeans were never a part of the commonwealth of Greece, but were subject to the Persians, for which reason he deemed them guilty of no crime, in sending an embassy to their king. As to the rest of the Greeks, those who had entered into the Persian service before the league and confederacy of their countrymen with the Lacedæmonians, he set free, and, with them, Heraclides, the Carthaginian ambassador. The rest he ordered to take up arms for him, on the same conditions 87 they had served Darius. Over those he appointed Andronicus, who brought them to preside as captain, whom he judged to have deserved well, because he had taken the best means for the preservation of their lives.
AFTER this he hastened with his army to Zeudracarta, the chief city of Hyrcania, where was the royal palace; and, having tarried there fifteen days, sacrificed to the gods, after the manner of his country, and exhibited gymnic exercises, he begun his march against the Parthians. Then he passed into the Arian confines to Susia, a city of the Arii, where Satibarzanes, governor of Aria, came to meet him. He restored him his government, and, with him, sent Anaxippus, one of his friends, at the head of a party of forty archers, on horseback, whom he appointed to guard the places, that the Arii might sustain no damage by his army, in their march through their country. About this time arrived certain Persians, with news that Bessus had assumed the recta tira, or turban, and the Persian vest, ensigns of royalty, and, laying aside the name of Bessus, would be stiled Artaxerxes, King of Asia; that he had with him the Persian troops, which had fled into Bactria, and great numbers of the Bactrians, and daily expected the arrival of some confederate Scythians. Alexander, having now all his forces together, directed his march towards Bactria; for here Philip, the son of Menelaus, came to him from Media, with the mercenary troops of horse under his command, and the Thessalians, who, by his order, tarried behind in the camp, besides the recruits led on by Andromachus; for Nicanor, the son of Parmenio, Captain of the targeteers, was now dead. As Alexander was upon his march into Bactria, he received information that Satibarzanes, governor of the Arii, having slain Anaxippus, and the archers, his attendants, had armed the country, and ordered them to meet at the city of Artacoana, where is the royal palace of the Arian princes. He had also resolved, as soon as he had received the news that Alexander had marched a little further off, to lead his army to Bessus, that so, by their joint force, they might be able to match the Macedonians, wherever they met them. When Alexander heard this, he postponed his journey into Bactria, and, taking with him his auxiliary horse, his darters on horseback, his archers, and Agrians, as also Cænus’s and Amyntas’s troops, leaving the rest of the army there, under Craterus, he marched suddenly against Satibarzanes and the Arii, and, having travelled six hundred furlongs in two days, came to Artacoana. Satibarzanes no sooner perceived his approach, than he was struck with astonishment at the expedition he had made; wherefore, with a few of the Arian horse, he made his escape, many of his soldiers, when they were assured that the enemy was at hand, deserting from him in his flight. Alexander seized as many as he knew were guilty of the revolt, and those who had forsaken their inhabitations, and used them with rigour, putting some to death, and sending others into slavery, and, 88 having then appointed Arsaces, the Persian, governor of the Arii, he, with those forces which he had before left with Craterus, marching against the Zarangæi, came to the Imperial city; but Barsaentes, one of those who had murdered Darius in his flight, and was then prince of that country, hearing of his approach, fled to the Indians on the other side of the river Indus; but they, having seized him, sent him to Alexander, who, for his treachery to Darius, commanded him to be put to death.
AT this time Alexander was assured that Philotas, the son of Parmenio, had conspired against his life. Ptolemy and Aristobulus acquaint us, that, when the treason was first divulged to him in Egypt, he rejected the information, as deeming it highly improbable, not only because of the ancient friendship and honour he had for his father Parmenio, but also because of the extraordinary confidence he had reposed in him. But Ptolemy elsewhere tells us, that Philotas, being brought before a council of the Macedonians, and grievously accused by Alexander, was then acquitted: but afterwards, fresh circumstances appearing, and a new charge being drawn up against him and his accomplices, among other things, one, in particular, was, that he had confessed his having knowledge of a certain conspiracy against his sovereign’s life, which he never divulged, notwithstanding he had all the opportunity he could wish to make a discovery, having free access into the royal tent twice every day. Upon this Philotas, and all the rest of the conspirators, were slain by darts from the Macedonians which surrounded them. Polydamus, one of Alexander’s friends, was immediately dispatched away to Parmenio, with letters from him to the captains of the army in Media, who, at that time, were Cleander, Sitalces, and Menides, who commanded there under Parmenio; and by them Parmenio was put to death, either because Alexander deemed it unlikely that Philotas should form so deep a conspiracy against his life, and his father be ignorant thereof, or rather, though, perhaps, he might think him innocent, he might, at the same time, think it dangerous, having slain the son, to suffer his father to survive, especially since his power was so vast, both with Alexander and the army, as well Macedonians as foreigners, over a great part of whom, by his sovereign’s command, he had often presided, both in his course and otherwise, and acquitted himself with the highest applause.
THE same authors add, that Amyntas, the son of Andromenes, was accused before the council, and with him, Polemon, Attalus, and Symmias, his brothers, as privy to the conspiracy against Alexander, by reason 89 of their extraordinary intimacy with Philotas; and the suspicion of their guilt was strengthened among the common people, because, when Philotas was apprehended, Polemon, one of those brothers, fled to the enemy. But when Amyntas, who, with his two brothers, which stood heir ground, had taken their trial, he pleaded his cause so well, that they were all acquitted; immediately after which, before the council rose, he begged leave to go and bring his brother back to Alexander, which being granted, he went, and the same day returned with his brother: and, from this circumstance, his innocence appeared much plainer than before. However, as he was assaulting a small village, not long after, he was struck with an arrow, and died of the wound; so that he received little advantage from his absolution by the council, except that of carrying the character of a loyal subject to his grave. After this, Alexander gave the command of the auxiliary horse to two of his friends, namely, to Hephæstion, the son of Amyntor, and Clitus, the son of Dropides. And he thus divided these two troops, because he would not trust any one of his friends, with the sole command of them, they being the best in his whole army, both for honour and martial prowess. He then turned his eyes upon those who were anciently called Agriaspæ, but afterwards, Euergetæ, or Bountiful, who had assisted Cyrus, the son of Cambyses, in his expeditions against the Scythians. Those Alexander highly esteemed, because their predecessors had behaved themselves well; and when he heard that they lived not after the manner of the barbarians, their neighbours, but administered justice, like the best ordered states of Greece, he declared them free, and gave them as much land, out of the neighbouring country, as they requested, because their requests were moderate. In that place he sacrificed to Apollo, and then, having seized upon Demetrius, one of his body-guards, whom he suspected to be one of the accomplices of Philotas, he substituted Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, in his place.
Alexander, after this, directed his march against Bactria and Bessus, and, in his way, having received homage of the Drangæ, the Gadrosi, and Arachoti, he appointed Menon their governor. He then proceeded to the Indians, adjacent to the Arachoti, all which nations he subdued, but with the utmost toil and difficulty, his soldiers passing through deep snows, and enduring all the extremities of want: but when he had notice that the Arii had again revolted, and that Satibarzanes, with two thousand horse, which he had received from Bessus, had entered the country, he dispatched Artabazus, the Persian, with Erigyius, and Caranus, against them, and ordered Phrataphernes, governor of the Parthians, to accompany them. A sharp battle then happened, between the troops of Erigyius and Caranus, and those of Satibarzanes; and the 90 barbarians stood their ground, till Satibarzanes, encountering Erigyius, was struck in the face by a dart, and died of the wound; but then, terrified at the death of their general, they betook themselves to flight. Alexander then marching to Mount Caucasus, built a city there, which he named Alexandria, and, having offered sacrifices to the gods, after the custom of his country, passed over the mountains. He left the government of the land in the hands of Proexes, the Persian, and appointed his friend Niloxenus, the son of Satyrus, to remain there, with his army. Mount Caucasus, according to Aristobulus’s account, rises to as great a height as any mountain in all Asia, and the surface thereof, in that part where Alexander viewed it, was bare. It also stretches out to such a mighty length, that some reckon Mount Taurus, which crosses Cilicia and Pamphylia, to be a branch thereof, as also many other high mountains, which vary their names, according to the variety of nations inhabiting near them. Nothing but sylphium, and the turpentine-tree, grow there, according to the same author, notwithstanding which, it is very populous, and multitudes of sheep and neat cattle are seen there; for they feed upon sylphium, and the sheep especially are so fond thereof, that if they chance to smell it at a distance, they immediately hasten thither, and, having cropt the flower, even dig up and gnaw the root; for which reason, some of the Cyreneans keep their sheep at a distance from the places where the sylphium grows, and others inclose it with a fence, lest their sheep should smell it, if too near, or break in and devour it; for it is there very valuable. Bessus, with those who were his accomplices in the treachery against Darius, besides seven thousand Bactrians, and Daæ, who inhabited the country beyond the Tanais, had laid all the country about Caucasus waste, to the intent that the desolation thereof and the want of all necessaries, might put a stop to Alexander’s progress: but he, nevertheless, marched forwards, though with extreme difficulty, by reason of the depth of the snow, and scarcity of provisions. As soon as Bessus understood that Alexander was not far off, he passed the river Oxus with his forces, and, having immediately burnt the vessels which they had used in ferrying over, returned to Nautaca, a city of Sogdia. He was attended thither by Spitamenes and Oxyartes, with the Sogdian horse, and Daæ, from the river Tanais; but the Bactrian horse, perceiving that he had no hopes of safety remaining but what he placed in a precipitate flight, fell away from him by degrees, and returned to their own country.
Alexander then hastened to Drapsaca, where, having refreshed his army, he moved thence against Aornus and Bactra, the chief cities of the Bactrians; which being immediately surrendered to him, he placed a garrison in the castle of Aornus, and, making Archelaus, the 91 son of Androcles, one of his friends, governor thereof, and all the rest of the country being easily reduced, Artabazus, the Persian, was appointed their president. He then led his army to the river Oxus. This river had its rise from Mount Caucasus, and is the greatest in all Asia, which Alexander passed over with his army, except those of India; it discharges its water into the great sea, near Hyrcania. When Alexander came to this river, he found no possibility of passing over it; for its breadth was full six furlongs, its depth proportionable to a greater breadth, and the bottom sandy. Its stream was so rapid, as suddenly to root out and sweep away whatever piles were driven down into the bottom, which could not be firmly fixed, by reason of the looseness of the sand. Add to this, that he had no materials ready for the building a bridge, and it would have taken up too much of his time to have conveyed every thing necessary for that purpose thither, from parts so far distant. Having therefore ordered all the skins, which they used for their tents, to be gathered together, he commanded them to be filled with any light and dry matter they could find, and carefully bound up and stitched, to prevent the water from entering; upon which skins, so stuffed out and sewed up, in the space of five days, he conveyed his whole army safe over. But, before he attempted to pass this river, he sought out such of the Macedonians as were rendered unfit for service, either by age or wounds, and such of the Thessalians as had chosen to remain in their tents, and sent them back into their own country. He then dispatched Stasanor, one of his friends, into the territories of the Arii, to seize Arsames, the governor there (who was endeavouring to stir up his people to a revolt) and take the care of that province upon himself. Having therefore passed over the river Oxus, he marched with his forces towards the place where he heard that Bessus and his army lay encamped; but in the mean time arrived messengers from Spitamenes and Dataphernes, who assured him, that if he would send any of his captains thither, with a small party, they would deliver Bessus prisoner into his hands; for they had already apprehended him, though they had not yet bound him with fetters. When Alexander understood this, he slackened his pace, and moved easily forwards with his army, but ordered Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, with three troops of the auxiliary horse, and all his archers on horseback, as also Philotas’s regiment of foot, besides a thousand targeteers, all his Agrians, and half of his archers, to make the best of his way to Spitamenes and Dataphernes. Ptolemy having accordingly marched ten ordinary days journey in four days space, arrived at the place where Spitamenes and the barbarians had encamped the night before.
92THERE Ptolemy was assured that Spitamenes and Dataphernes were not fully resolved, in their own minds, about the delivery of Bessus. Wherefore, leaving his foot behind, and commanding them to follow in order, he hastened forward with his horse, till he came to a certain village where Bessus was, with a few of his soldiers; for those with Spitamenes had quitted the place, because they would not seem to be guilty of betraying him. Ptolemy, having surrounded the village with his horse (for it was walled round) ordered proclamation to be made, that the inhabitants should not receive any harm, if they would deliver up Bessus. The barbarians hearing this, opened their gates, and Ptolemy, with his forces, entered the village, where, having seized Bessus, he returned to Alexander, but, first of all, dispatched a messenger, to enquire after what manner Bessus should be brought into his presence? who returned answer, That he should be brought chained, and naked, and afterwards placed on the right-hand side of the way, along which he was to pass with his army. When Alexander saw him, he caused his chariot to stop, and asked him, What induced him to seize upon Darius, his sovereign and his friend, and who had always deserved well at his hands, and, after having seized and led him about prisoner, to murder him? To whom Bessus replied, That it was not his act, nor done by his advice alone, but it was the general opinion of all then present that it would procure them the favour of Alexander. He then ordered Bessus to be whipped, and the upbraiding speech he had first made to him to be proclaimed aloud by a crier. Bessus, thus punished, was sent into Bactria, there to be put to death. Thus far Ptolemy; but Aristobulus’s account of this affair is, that Spitamenes’s and Dataphernes’s soldiers delivered Bessus into Ptolemy’s hands, and that he was then brought chained and naked to Alexander. Alexander, having received the horses he there expected, to remount his cavalry (for he had lost many horses, in his passage over Mount Caucasus, as well as in his march towards the river Oxus, and his departure from thence), marched streight to Maracanda, in which city stands the royal palace of the Sogdians, and afterwards to the river Tanais. This (which, Aristobulus says, has the name of Orxantes, among the neighbouring inhabitants) owes its rise to Mount Caucasus, and discharges its waters into the Hyrcanian sea. There is another Tanais, whereof Herodotus, the historian, makes mention, as the eighth river of Scythia, and adds, that it has its origin from a great lake, and loses itself at last in one much greater, namely, the lake of Mæotis; that some place this Tanais as the boundary of Europe and Asia; for this river falling into the Palus Mæotis, and that afterwards into the Euxine Sea, parts Europe and Asia, in the same manner as the sea between Gades, and the opposite shore of Numidia, disjoins Europe from Africa; or as the river Nilus separates Africa from another part of Asia. Here (namely at this river Tanais) some of the Macedonian 93 horse, foraging at a great distance, were surprised, and slain by the barbarians, who were gathered together, to the number of about thirty thousand, and who, after this exploit, betook them to a high mountain, steep and rugged, and every way difficult to ascent. Against these Alexander, with the swiftest and lightest armed troops of his whole army, suddenly directed his march. The Macedonians, in several of their first attempts to dislodge the mountaineers, were beat back by the barbarians, and many of them wounded; even Alexander himself was shot through the leg with an arrow, whereby the fibula, or lesser bone thereof, was broken. However, at last, the mountain was gained, and many of the barbarians slain by the Macedonians; many others also threw themselves headlong from the rocks, and perished; so that, of thirty thousand who endeavoured to maintain that post, scarce eight thousand made their escape.
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