From Classical Geography, by H. F. Tozer, from the series of Literature Primers edited by John Richard Green; New York : American Book Company; pp. 72-82.
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CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY
CHAPTER VII.
CENTRAL GREECE.
1. Malis. — The part of Greece which we now approach possesses in fuller measure the features that we have seen to be most characteristic — finely-marked mountain-chains, distinct valleys and valley-plains, and a long and intricate sea-board — and at the same time a thoroughly Hellenic population. On the southern side of Thessaly the wide valley of the Spercheius occupies the space between the parallel ranges of Othrys and Oeta, extending from the foot of Mount Typhrestus, where are the sources of that river, to the Maliac Gulf, which is in reality a continuation of the valley. The corner of this territory, which lies between the cliffs of Oeta and the sea, was called Malis, and was of great importance to Greece, because it contained the key of that country in the pass of Thermopylæ. The pass commenced just beyond the point where the Asōpus, issuing from a gorge on the south side, flowed into the sea; but at the present day the alluvium brought down by the Spercheius has carried the coast-line so much further out that the Asopus flows into the Spercheius, and a level plain extends below Thermopylæ. At the foot of the heights to the west of the Asopus stood the 73 city of Trachis, and somewhat higher up is the site of Heracleia, which the Spartans built as a garrison town during the Peloponnesian War. It was by the gorge of the Asopus that the detachment of the Persians under Hydarnes succeeded in reaching the high ground, or Anopæa, above the pass, and thus descending in the rear of the Greeks. The pass was formed by the sea washing the foot of the steep mountains, and was narrowest just beyond where the hot springs, which gave their name to the place, issued from the ground. Here it was that the Spartans under Leonidas made their final stand.
2. Locris and Doris. — At an early period the Locrian race extended from the Maliac to the Corinthian Gulf, but at the time of the migration of the Bœotians from Thessaly they were broken in two, so that in historic times they formed two separate tribes on the shores of the two seas. The rugged mountains which form a continuation of Mount Oeta along the Maliac Gulf bore the name of Cnemis, and were the seat of the Epicnemidian Locrians, through whose territory there was a pass of great importance between Thermopylæ and the plains of Phocis, which it entered at Elateia. Further to the east, overlooking the Euboic Sea, were the Opuntian Locrians; and between them and the Epicnemidians the Phocians possessed a part, called Daphnus, facing the Eubœan promontory of Cenæum, and the neighboring Lichădes Islands The other Locrian tribe, the Locri Ozŏlæ, occupied the triangular space between Ætolia and Phocis, the shores of which are washed by the Corinthian and Crissæan Gulfs. In the extreme west of their territory stood Naupactus, an important city with a good harbour, which commanded the entrance of the straits; in the extreme east, Amphissa, at the head of the plain which runs in from the Crissæan Gulf. From this place a pass leads over the mountains, through Doris, to the country of Malis and Northern Greece. The little territory of Doris, which 74 though it was at one time the seat of the Dorian race, only contained four towns, was an upland district between Parnassus and Oeta. It contained the head waters of the Cephīsus, and was closely connected with Phocis by that river.
3. Phocis. — Phocis was enclosed by the Locri Ozolæ, Doris, the Locri Epicnemidii, Bœotia, and the Corinthian Gulf. It consisted of two dissimilar parts, the upper valley of the Cephisus and the mountain region of Parnassus. The former of these was a space of open ground in the midst of the mountains, interposing between Doris and Bœotia; the latter was almost entirely occupied by the great mountain itself and its buttresses, for Parnassus is the most massive of all the Greek mountains. It is separated from the Gulf of Corinth by Mount Cirphis, and in the deep valley between the two mountains ran the river Pleistus, which made its way into the Crissæan gulf. This valley formed the line of the famous Σχιστὴ ὁδός, at the eastern end of which was the meeting of three roads, one leading to Delphi, one to Daulis, and one to Thebes. This was the Triŏdos, where Oedipus slew his father, Laius. On the southern side of Parnassus, facing Mount Cirphis, and overlooking the valley of the Pleistus, stood Delphi, at a height of 1,500 feet above the sea. From the head of the Crissæan Gulf, where lay the port of Cirrha, to the buttress of Parnassus, on which stood Crissa, the guardian city of Delphi, extended the Sacred Plain, which was forbidden to be cultivated. The violation of this rule was the cause of a Sacred War. Above the rocky slopes on which Delphi is placed there rise two precipitous faces of rock, which run together at an obtuse angle; close to their point of meeting, where a narrow chasm is formed, the fountain of Castalia rises, and then falls in steep cascades to join the Pleistus in the valley below. The precipices here described are the “twin peaks” of Parnassus, 75 frequently mentioned by the Greek poets, and should be carefully distinguished from the summit of that mountain, which rises to the height of nearly 8,000 feet, and is not two, but one. The Temple of Apollo stood in a conspicuous position, close to the foot of the western precipice. The seclusion of the place and its magnificent surroundings rendered it a fitting home for a great oracle.
4. Bœotia. — The area of Bœotia was greater than the combined area of all the countries that have been mentioned in this chapter; and it had the further advantage of bordering both on the eastern and western seas, and of lying on the highway of traffic between Phocis and Attica, and commanding the passage from Northern to Southern Greece. But all this seems to have been neutralized by the heavy atmosphere of its damp valleys, which caused the Bœotian to be known for his phlegmatic temperament, dull intellect, and rude manners. The interior of the country was enclosed by mountains on the four sides — towards Attica by Cithæron and Parnes; towards the Euboic Sea by a continuation of the Opuntian Mountains; towards the Corinthian Gulf by Helicon; and on the side of Phocis by spurs from the neighbouring mountains. Of these Helicon was the highest, and was far-famed as the abode of the Muses; the name of one of its offshoots, Mount Leibethrium, and of the fountains on its sides, Aganippe and Hippocrēne, are associated with those divinities. The district thus enclosed was divided by intervening hills into two basins, the chief towns of which were Orchomĕnus and Thebes respectively; consequently on these two the history of the country turns, for in the heroic age Orchomenus was the most important place in Bœotia, when it was ruled by the dynasty of the Minyæ, and at a later period Thebes. The westernmost of these basins was that which enclosed the Copāic lake, a large expanse of shallow water, which is summer was hardly more than a marsh, and 76 was famous for its eels. It was fed by the Cephisus, which, rising in Doris and flowing through the lowlands of Phocis, entered Bœotia by a defile near the city of Chæroneia. This pass was the most important entrance to the country, and in consequence of this the plain of Chæroneia has always been a great battle-field. The only outlet for the waters of the Copaic lake was through subterranean passages, either natural or artificial, which communicated with the Euboic Sea. The other large cities of this basin, besides Orchomenus and Chæroneia, were Lebadeia, Coroneia, and Haliartus. The other basin was less regular in its shape, and was drained for the most part by the Asōpus. This river rises not far from Thespiæ and Leuctra in the west of the country, and passing Tanagra and Oenophyta, empties itself into the eastern sea. At no great distance to the west of its mouth was the temple and sacred enclosure of Delium. Half-way between the two seas, in a plain of its own, stood Thebes, the capital city, built on a low spur of ground, which projects northwards from the hills behind. On either side of it flow two clear streams, Dirce and Ismēnus, which join their waters in the plain. This copious supply of water, and the central position, were the chief recommendations of the site. The rival town of Platæa lay on the northern slopes of Cithæron, and consequently in close proximity to Attica, with which country it had such intimate political relations. The ground in front of it was the watershed of the country, from which the Asopus flowed in one direction, and the brook Oërŏë in the other; this was the scene of the battle of Platæa and the movements that preceded it. On the side of Cithæron also, but further to the east, were the frontier towns of Hysiæ and Erythræ.
5. Eubœa. — The island of Eubœa, from its position relatively to Bœotia, appears naturally to belong to that country. This was actually the case when, in 77 the course of the Peloponnesian War, the strait of the Euripus, at the narrowest point of the Eubœic Sea, was spanned by a bridge. The Euripus is about 120 feet broad, and is divided in the middle by a rock. It has always been famous for its tides, which change many times in the day. The command of this strait was of great importance, for much of the trade from the north of the Ægean passed by this way towards Attica and the Peloponnese, to avoid the dangers of the open sea and the rocky eastern coast of the island. Hence the city, which was built on the Eubœan shore of the Euripus, Chalcis, early rose to eminence, as is shown by its colonies in Chalcidice. A few miles to the south of this was the second city of the island, Eretria; and nearly opposite, on an eminence on the Bœotian side, stood Aulis, from which the fleet of Agamemnon sailed. The whole of Eubœa is intersected by a rocky ridge, the continuation of the chain of Ossa and Pelion; this reaches its highest point in Mount Dirphe, behind Chalcis. On the northern coast, opposite the entrance of the Pagasæan Gulf, was Artemisium, the scene of the naval conflict between the Greeks and Persians; and at the southern end were the promontories of Caphāreus and Geræstus, greatly dreaded by sailors on account of their violent storms. Near the last-named cape, opposite Attica, was the town of Carystus.
6. Megaris and Attica : General Features. — Between Bœotia and the Sarōnic Gulf, lay a triangular piece of ground, which was occupied by the districts of Megăris and Attica; originally, however, before the Dorian invasion, which resulted in the foundation of Megara, it was politically as well as physically one, being entirely in the hands of the Ionian race. From its outlying character, stretching as it does into the Ægean, it was especially fitted to hold intercourse with foreign countries, and to be the home of a great maritime power; and its light stony 78 soil contributed to this result, as the unremunerative nature of its agriculture turned the thoughts of its inhabitants towards the sea. The nearness of the sea caused its temperature to be the most equable in Greece, and in this respect it presented a striking contrast to its neighbour Bœotia, which suffered from extremes of heat and cold. The mountain barrier, which separated it from Bœotia, was formed by Cithæron on the west and Parnes on the east : near their point of junction was the pass of Phyle, which was occupied by Thrasybulus at the time of the Thirty Tyrants; this led into the head of the plain of Athens at Acharnæ. On either side of Phyle lay two other passes; one by Dryoscephălæ, from Platæa to Eleusis over Cithæron; and another by Deceleia, from Orōpus to Athens over Parnes. The entire area was divided into a succession of plains by spurs, which ran southwards at right angles to Cithæron and Parnes. The westernmost of these skirts the Corinthian Gulf and attaches itself to the great mass of Geraneia, which stretches from sea to sea in front of the Isthmus; the next forms the boundary between Megaris and Attica. The town of Megara was situated about a mile from the Saronic Gulf, on which it possessed the port of Nisæa, with the Island of Minōa in front of it, while on the Corinthian Gulf it had another port, Pegæ. Its position was the cause of its importance, for it commanded both seas, and the entrance into the Peloponnese. Of the passes that led from Megara into that country, one crossed the ridge of Geraneia, while the other skirted the Saronic Gulf under the dangerous precipices of the Scironian rocks.
7. Description of Attica. — Eastward from Megaris lay the plain of Eleusis, which was separated from that of Athens by the ridge of Ægaleos; the portion nearest to that mountain bore the special name of the Thriasian Plain. A depression in the ridge marked the point where the Sacred Way passed 79 from Athens to Eleusis. The site of that city was on the seashore at the head of the bay of Salamis, in front of which the island of that name was interposed from side to side. The scene of the famous battle was the strait between that island and the extremity of Ægaleos, and the last spur of that mountain was the “rocky brow,” from which Xerxes overlooked it. In the middle of the strait lay the little island of Psyttaleia. The plain of Athens was flanked by Ægaleos and Hymettus, and extended from the foot of Parnes to the Saronic Gulf. On its eastern side, between four and five miles from the sea, was the site of Athens, marked by a group of low hills, to the north-east of which rises a more conspicuous peak, Mount Lycabettus. Two streams watered the plain — the Ilissus, flowing from Hymettus and skirting the east of the city, where it received the waters of the fountain Callirrhoë; and the Cephisus, a larger stream, which rose in Parnes and formed a long line of green vegetation between Athens and Ægaleos, where its waters were diverted for purposes of irrigation, and fertilized the groves of Colonus and the gardens of the Academy. The seashore of the plain was broken into a number of inlets, which formed the harbours of Athens. Towards the north-east the plain was bounded by the graceful peak of Pentelicus or Brilessus, in the sides of which were the quarries of white marble which furnished the material for the Athenian temples. Between this and Hymettus is an interval of two miles, which forms the entrance to the Mesogæa, an inland undulating plain, reaching nearly to Sunium; its chief town was Brauron. The promontory in which Hymettus terminates was called Zoster, and the strip of coast land that reached from this to Sunium, and was separated from the Mesogæa by a line of lower mountains, was the district of Paralia. At the north-eastern corner of Attica, facing Eubœa, was the little plain of Marathon, enclosed on three sides by 80 Parnes and Pentelicus, and on the fourth by the sea. It was from the slopes of Pentelicus that the Greeks descended at the time of the battle, while the Persians were drawn up on the sea-shore, and on the two sides were the marshes, which impeded the movement of their great host. The inhabitants of this region and the neighbouring mountains were the Diacrii or Hyperacrii, one of the three political parties in Attica; being poor mountaineers, they were the most disposed for change. The other two parties were the Pedieis, the rich occupants of the plains, who were naturally conservative, and the Parali, whose interests were mercantile, and whose political views were moderate. It remains only to notice the district of Oropus, which geographically belonged to Bœotia, as it lay to the north of Parnes towards the Eubœic Sea; but the Athenians kept a firm hand upon it, in order to maintain their communications with Eubœa.
8. Athens. — The most conspicuous among the hills of Athens was a rocky table with precipitous sides, nearly oval in shape, and level on the summit, on which stood the Acropolis. Its area was about 1,000 feet in length by 500 in breadth, and it rose about 350 feet above the plain. The Propylæa, or defensive works through which it was approached on the western side, were masterpieces of architecture; and on the level of the summit stood — among other magnificent works of art — on the north side the colossal bronze statue of Athena Promachus, and the Ionic temple called the Erechtheium; on the south side the Parthenon. This place, as has already been remarked (p. 67), was the original city, and was afterwards retained as a fortress and a sanctuary. The view from it embraced the whole plain of Athens and the neighbouring mountains, together with the Saronic Gulf, Ægina and the Argolic coast, and the Acrocorinth. The precipices on the north side of the Acropolis were called the Long Rocks (Μακραὶ πέτραι), and underneath 81 these lay the Pelasgicum, which was regarded as an accursed spot of ground. Westward of the Acropolis, and separated from it by a deep depression, was a craggy knoll, the Areiopagus. The meetings of the famous court of that name were held on its summit, where stone benches are excavated in the rock, so as to form three sides of a square : these were reached by a flight of stone steps from below. The Areiopagus served as a link to connect the Acropolis with the other hills, which formed a line on the western side. The northernmost of these was the Hill of the Nymphs; next came the Hill of the Pnyx, and to the south the Museium. The Pnyx, which was the great meeting-place of the Athenians, faced the Propylæa, and consisted of a sloping area of ground capable of containing many thousand persons, at the top of which was a bema or tribune, supported on stone steps. The space enclosed between the Acropolis, the Areiopagus, and the Pnyx, is supposed by some to have been the Agora, though others believe that place to have been in the lower ground north of the Areiopagus. About and northward of the Hill of the Nymphs, was the quarter called Cerameicus. The great theatre of Dionysus, in which the plays of the Attic dramatists were performed, stood close to the south-eastern angle of the Acropolis, some of the rows of seats being excavated in the hill-side; it was capable of containing 20,000 persons. The sacred enclosure within which it lay was called the Lenæum. In early times the city spread itself on the southern side of the Acropolis, but at a later period it also covered the space towards the north, though it did not extend much more than half a mile in that direction.
9. Harbours of Athens. — On the sea-coast to the south-west of Athens there rises a mass of rocky ground, the Hill of Munychia, which formed the acropolis of the town of Piræus. Eastward of this stretched the open roadstead of Phalērum, while on the western side lay the closed harbour of Piræus. 82 This latter is nearly perfect of its kind, being deep, spacious, and landlocked, for a tongue of land called Eetioneia, projecting from the northern shore, almost closed its entrance. On the southern side of it was an inlet called Canthărus, which was reserved for vessels of war, the rest being devoted to the merchant navy. On the opposite side of the Piræic peninsula a small harbour called Zea penetrated into the land, and together with Canthărus nearly divided the peninsula in two. Between Zea and Phalerum a little bight in the Hill of Munychia formed the harbour of that name. The original Long Walls, which were planned by Themistocles, ran from Athens, the one to Piræus, the other to the eastern side of the bay of Phalerum. The third, which was added by the advice of Pericles, connected the eastern part of the fortifications of Piræus towards Munychia with the city.
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CHAPTER VIII. The Peloponnese and the Islands.