From Classical Geography, by H. F. Tozer, from the series of Literature Primers edited by John Richard Green; New York : American Book Company; pp. 63-72.
63
CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY
CHAPTER VI.
NORTHERN GREECE.
1. General Characteristics of Greece, and Effect on the Greeks. — The country commonly called Greece, but by the Greeks themselves Hellas, properly begins with Thessaly. It was in many respects the most remarkably formed country of the ancient world, and this formation had a great influence on the character and history of its inhabitants. The remarks that have already been made on the characteristics of Europe (p. 14), as compared with the other two continents, can be applied with still greater force to Greece. No other country has so long a seaboard in proportion to its area, or so diversified an outline, or such innumerable bays and harbours. Again, though Greece is a very mountainous country, yet it is not, like Thrace, an irregular jumble of mountains; but the whole surface, whether highland or lowland, is delicately marked and carefully defined in small distinct districts. The effect of these peculiarities at once appears in the history. As the sea was everywhere in their neighbourhood, the Greeks were essentially a maritime people; and the separation of the country into areas of limited extent caused them to form a number of separate states without being combined into a united nation. And the character of the people was affected by the same influences. For the mountaineer is usually characterised by his patriotism and love of freedom, and the seafaring man, from his changeful and adventurous life, gains boldness and an aptitude for new ideas; and thus in the Greek, with whom both influences were present, these two elements of character were combined. At the same time the great variety of surface that the country presented, being diversified 64 by mountains, hills, valleys, and plains, and the consequent variety of occupation of the inhabitants, fostered that versatility for which the Greeks were famous; and the temperate climate and absence of objects of overwhelming magnitude were in accordance with that freedom from extravagance which was the secret of their taste. In the formation of a national character two elements must be present — one internal, the nature of the race, the other external, the conditions under which it developed. Now, the reason why the Greeks were so remarkable a people, especially in respect of their intellect, was that they possessed these two elements, the race and the country, in great perfection, and that the one closely corresponded to the other. It should also be noticed how, in proportion as we advance southward, the peculiar features both of the country and the people, which we have noticed, become gradually more and more marked; for Thessaly and Epirus, which possessed the plainest seaboard and most unformed surface, had at the same time the least Hellenic population; in the central districts, intervening between these and the Isthmus of Corinth, there is a marked advance in both respects; but the culminating point is reached in the Peloponnese, where the most elaborate country and the most typical races are found.
1. Mountains of Northern and Central Greece. — Northern Greece is divided into two parts by a well-defined backbone, which, under the names of Scardus and Pindus, traverses the country from north to south. Scardus takes its rise far away to the north, beyond the plain of Pelagonia, and divides the upland levels of Western Macedonia from the rugged territory of Illyricum, extending as far south as Lyncestis. Here Pindus begins, and where it reaches the north-west angle of Thessaly, it rises conspicuously in Mount Lacmon, which forms the most important watershed 65 and starting-point of mountains in Northern Greece. From it the Aōus, the Aracthus, and the Achelōus flow to the western, the Haliacmon and Peneius to the eastern sea; and at the same point the Ceraunian mountains diverge to the north-west, reaching to the Acro-Ceraunian promontory, opposite the heel of Italy, while to the east runs the Cambunian range, terminating in Mount Olympus, where it touches the Thermaic Gulf. Olympus is by far the highest mountain in the Greek peninsula, and reaches nearly 10,000 feet. South-eastward from it the coast is bounded by the lower, but still lofty, heights of Ossa and Pelion; and this chain is continued through the rocky island of Euboœa, and beyond that by the northern Cyclades, Andros, Tenos, and Mycŏnos. Southward of Mount Lacmon, Pindus divides Thessaly from Epirus, until at its southern extremity it throws up the lofty peak of Typhrestus (or Tymphrestus). At this point, near the head-waters of the Spercheius, a number of chains diverge — to the east, Othrys, which forms the southern boundary of Thessaly, and overhangs the valley of the Spercheius and the Maliac Gulf; to the south-east the no less lofty Oeta, which runs parallel to it, enclosing the same district on the south; and to the south-west the irregular ranges of Ætolia. But the most lineal descendant of Pindus is the succession of mountains which, under the famous names of Parnassus and Helicon, run through Phocis and Bœotia, and afterwards as Cithæron and Parnes divide the last-named country from Attica, while an offshoot from Cithæron branching off towards the south, and skirting the Corinthian gulf, forms the great mass of Geraneia, which blocks the approach to the isthmus. Again, from the end of Oeta a lower mountain range skirts the Euboic sea, passing through the Locrian territory and the east of Bœotia, until it meets the extremity of Parnes, and there throws up the lofty pyramid of Pentelicus; after which it gradually descends towards 66 the promontory of Sunium, and is further continued in the islands of Ceos, Cythnos, Serīphos, and Siphnos. Thus it will be seen that Greece is defended by a series of ramparts, for Olympus, Othrys, Oeta, Cithæron, and Geraneia have successively to be passed before an invader can reach the Peloponnese. The mountains of Greece are sharply cut and beautifully formed; and the number of commanding summits is great, for though Olympus is the only one that rises above 8,000 feet, yet there are upwards of twenty-five in various parts of the country that are over 4,000, and many of these till late in the spring are deeply covered with snow.
3. Coast-line of Northern and Central Greece. — In tracing the shores of the Greek peninsula from Mount Olympus and the Acro-Ceraunian promontory to the Isthmus of Corinth, we have first to notice how the country is compressed into two waists, so to speak, in consequence of inlets penetrating from the two sides opposite one another into the interior. The first is formed by the Maliac and Ambracian gulfs about the parallel of Mount Typhrestus; the second by the Saronic and Corinthian gulfs, on either side of the Isthmus. The coast-line on both sides to the north of the first of these waists is comparatively unbroken, except where the Pagasæsus Sinus forms a land-locked bay at the south-east angle of Thessaly. Further to the south the shore of the Ionia Sea, from the Ambracian gulf as far as the straits at Rhium, though less uniform, possesses but few harbours; but on the eastern side the coast of Locris, Bœotia, and Attica is infinitely diversified, and its waters are protected by the natural breakwater of the Island of Eubœa. The same variety of outline is found in the Saronic Gulf, and on the northern shore of that of Corinth, the principal inlet of which is the Bay of Crissa, which leads up to Delphi. Thus in Central, and (as we shall see hereafter) in Southern Greece the mountains project into the seas, and the 67 sea advances far into the interior, so that the seaboard and the inland parts are combined into one, instead of forming two separate districts, as they do in most countries. It will also be seen that, while the western side of Greece, including the Peloponnese, is singularly destitute of good harbours, these are very numerous on the eastern side; and on this side it was that the principal maritime plains — those of Phthiotis, of Malis, of Athens, and of Argos — opened out on the sea. The result of this was that Greek colonization at an early period took an eastern and not a western direction; and this tendency was increased by the position of the islands, which formed chains across the Ægean, and naturally attracted the colonists towards the coast of Asia Minor.
4. Positions of Greek Cities. — One result of the hilly character of Greece was that its cities usually occupied elevated positions. The site which the Greeks chose by preference was the last spur of a mountain chain, which overlooked a plain or valley; here they were safe from attack, and had land close at hand to cultivate. The summits of such hills they surrounded with a wall of massive stones, carefully fitted together without mortar; and for this purpose the rocky surface supplied an abundant material. In many places, as notably at Athens, this citadel was the original city; afterwards, when the buildings extended down the slopes below, these formed the city, as distinguished from the stronghold, and were again surrounded by a wall of circuit. It was only in very rare instances that a city grew up, as Sparta did, without such an enclosure. The facility of defence which was thus provided introduced a settled order of things at an early period into the country; and the city life which it encouraged, with its busy discussions and conflicting interests, gave rise to a universal interest in politics, and fostered a democratic spirit. On the other hand, the existence of a citadel or Acropolis 68 above the town was a source of danger, because the person who was master of it could dictate to those below. Hence we find that the first act of a tyrant was always to seize the Acropolis.
5. Thessaly. — Thessaly, in the opinion of Herodotus, was originally an inland sea, before an outlet for the waters was formed through the Vale of Tempe, which, according to the fable, was made by Poseidon, who with his trident cleft the ground between Olympus and Ossa. This view if far from improbable, for the whole area is drained by the Peneius and its tributaries, which find an exit to the sea by that passage. The Peneius rises in Mount Lacmon in the north-west angle of the country, and describes a considerable arc in the middle of its course, where it receives the waters of the Enipeus, the Apidănus, the Onochōnus, and the Pamisus, flowing from the south; and shortly before entering Tempe it is joined on the northern side by the Titaresius. On the opposite side, not far from this point, a periodical overflow takes place, and the surplus waters are carried first into the Lake Nessōnis, and thence into that of Bœbe, which lies close under the flanks of Mount Pelion. This lake has no outlet, for a watershed intervenes between it and the Gulf of Pagăsae. The boundaries of Thessaly are formed by well-marked mountain-chains — Pindus on the west, Othrys on the south, Ossa and Pelion on the east, and the Cambunian mountains on the north. At the north-east angle Mount Olympus stands like a huge watch-tower, and dominates the whole. But it must not be supposed that the entire surface of the country is one unbroken level, for it is intersected by several lines of hills, the most marked of which are those which project both from the north and south in the direction of Larissa. The rich soil of Thessaly was a source of temptation to invaders, such as the Thessalians themselves, who migrated from Epirus and drove out the Bœotians, who before had occupied the 69 country. Owing to the same cause, the constitution of this district differed from what was found elsewhere in Greece, the land being possessed by a few wealthy families, such as the Aleuăde of Larissa and the Scopădæ of Crannon, and tilled by a serf population. On the broad plains, also, the horses were reared which made Thessaly famous for its cavalry.
6. Divisions, Cities, and Passes of Thessaly. — Thessaly was composed of four divisions — Hestiæotis, Thessaliotis, Pelasgiotis, and Phthiotis. Of these, Hestiæotis occupied the north-western corner, about the upper waters of the Peneius, having for its chief city Tricca; Thessaliotis the south-western, and was drained by the affluents of that river. Here lay the town of Pharsālus, the scene of the celebrated battle between Cæsar and Pompey. Pelasgiotis, which lay towards the north-east, was politically the most important district, for it contained the leading cities, Larissa, on the Peneius, and further to the south, Crannon and Pheræ. Not far from the last-named place was Cynoscephălæ, famous as the scene of the defeat of the last Philip of Macedon by the Roman Consul Flaminius. The fourth division, Phthiotis, occupying, as it did, the southern slopes of Othrys and the neighbourhood of the Pagasæus Sinus, formed in several ways a separate country, for it was divided from the rest of Thessaly by mountains or watersheds, and opened on the sea. Thucydides tells us that it was the early home of the Hellenic race. It was famed in ancient story as the native land of the great Achilles, and its land-locked sea appears to have been the cradle of Greek navigation. From it the Argonauts started on their adventurous voyage; in the forests of the neighbouring Pelion the pine was cut for their ship Argo, and on a rocky hill at the head of the gulf stood the city of Iolcos. Near this, on a projection of the coast, Demetrias 70 was built at a later period by Demetrius Poliorcetes, and as it commanded the approach to Thessaly, it was called by him one of the three fetters of Greece, Chalcis and Corinth being the other two. Of the outlying Thessalian tribes we may notice the Perrhæbi in the north, about the course of the Titaresius, in the south-west the Dolŏpes and Dryŏpes about the roots of Pindus, and to the east the Magnētes in the highlands of Ossa and Pelion. The most famous of the passes by which Thessaly could be entered was Tempe, a narrow winding ravine between four and five miles long full of luxuriant vegetation along the banks of the Peneius, and thus realizing the descriptions of the poets, but bounded by rocky precipices which rendered it easy of defence. This, however, could be turned by another pass, that of Petra, on the western side of Olympus, which entered the plain to the north of Larissa. From Epirus there was a pass over Mount Lacmon by the valley of the Peneius, by which Julius Cæsar arrived before Pharsalia; from the Ambracian Gulf another led over Pindus near the town of Gomphi; and from the Maliac Gulf, Othrys was crossed by a pass called Cœla, or “The Hollows.”
7. Illyricum and Epirus. — Epirus, which lay on the opposite side of Pindus to Thessaly, formed a strong contrast to that country in respect of its surface, being a mass of mountains. Illyricum, from which it was separated by the Ceraunian chain, was also mountainous, and was intersected by several rivers, the principal of which was the Aōus. Near the coast there were occasional plains, and these formed the principal source of wealth to the neighbouring Greek colonies of Epidamnus and Apollonia. Epirus consisted of three districts, Chaonia, Molottis, and Thesprotia. Chaonia lay to the north-west, reaching as far south as the river Thyămis; in this country, nearly opposite the north of Corcyra, was the city of Buthrōtum. Molottis formed the eastern part, 71 away from the sea, and contained a large lake called Pambōtis (Lake of Joannina). Thesprotia was the southern region, and had on its coast the small islands of Sybŏta. The principal river was the Arachthus, which rises in Lacmon and flows southwards into the Ambracius Sinus (Gulf of Arta). Though this country was little known to the Greeks, it contained three features of the highest importance in Greek mythology, — the river Acheron, the sources of the Achelous, and the oracle of Dodōna. The Acheron flows through a deep gorge amid scenery fitted to inspire a feeling of awe, and when it emerges from this forms a marsh, the Palus Acherusia, before reaching the sea. The Achelous, which rises not far from the Arachthus, for some distance skirts the chain of Pindus until it enters Acarnania; it was known to the Greeks as the most ancient of rivers. The site of the oracle of Dodona is not certainly known, but it was probably in the neighbourhood of the Lake Pambotis. On the northern shore of the land-locked Ambracian gulf was the district of Ambracia, with a town of the same name, situated on the Arachthus; and on the eastern side was Amphilochia, with a chief city, Argos. The tongue of land which guards the south side of the entrance of the bay was Actium, the scene of Augustus’ great naval victory over Antony and Cleopatra.
8. Acarnania and Ætolia. — the coast of Greece to the south of Epirus belonged to Acarnania. The greater part of the area of this country also was mountainous, but it contained one important river, the Achelous, the fertilizing waters of which intersect it from north to south. In a rich plain near its banks in the centre of the district was Stratus, the chief city; and near its mouth lay Oeniădæ, a place of great strength, owing to the marshes in the midst of which it was situated. Off the coast, where it enters the sea, were the islands called the Echinădes, some of which had already in classical times been united to 72 the mainland by the deposit of the river. Eastward of Acarnania was Ætolia, which extended as far east as the entrance of the Gulf of Corinth. It possessed a river of some importance, the Evēnus, and a large lake called Trichōnis. Conspicuous among its numerous mountains was Mount Corax, opposite Mount Parnassus, and little inferior to it in elevation. The strait by which the gulf was entered, between the headland of Rhium on the Achaian, and Antirrhium on the Ætolian coast, was about a mile and a half in width.
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CHAPTER VI.
Central Greece.